ORIGIN OF WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE IN NEW ZEALAND
In early colonial New Zealand, as well as in other European societies, it was pretty much understood that each gender had their own strengths. Women were thought to be better suited for domestic jobs, such as cooking, cleaning and nurturing children, whereas males were deemed ‘strong’ enough for the ‘harsher’ world of politics, and decision making. Thus the Victorian Century was decidedly male dominated--a society in which women were viewed as inferior. Women and men had distinct, gender based roles---“the home was a women’s sphere; the world was man’s.” (1) All that men required, and expected, of women was someone to be submissive, to support their endeavors and to look after the home. Women were given the title, “angel of the house.”
This degrading view of women only flourished with the release of the works of Sarah Ellis. Her novel, entitled How To Achieve Perfect Womanhood, encouraged women to act in the stereotypical behavior expected of them. Furthermore, at the time, Charles Darwin’s theories of evolution, coupled with Christian Doctrines, were arguing that species improved with selective breeding. (1) These publications reinforced the ideas encouraged by Sarah Ellis, by implying that women held the roles they did in society because they were not biologically suited for anything more.
As the Victorian era developed, so did this idea of “angel of the house.” Words such as frivolous, illogical and tenderhearted were constantly associated with women. (1) Women were deemed to be fit for no complicated life matters, due to their supposedly short attention spans.
This naive, narrow view of women was challenged near the end of the 19th century, as middle and high class women began attending secondary schools, and were able to receive university education. These women were able to occupy their time with all sorts of work (of the church and charitable variety) that enabled them to become more independent, and involved in society. As a result of this advancement in women’s education, attention was soon placed upon women’s rights.
Undoubtedly, the constant reiteration of the elaborate, doll like stereotype of women within society posed a real opposition to the idea of women’s suffrage, making it appear ludicrous and incomprehensible when broached by 19th century feminists.
This degrading view of women only flourished with the release of the works of Sarah Ellis. Her novel, entitled How To Achieve Perfect Womanhood, encouraged women to act in the stereotypical behavior expected of them. Furthermore, at the time, Charles Darwin’s theories of evolution, coupled with Christian Doctrines, were arguing that species improved with selective breeding. (1) These publications reinforced the ideas encouraged by Sarah Ellis, by implying that women held the roles they did in society because they were not biologically suited for anything more.
As the Victorian era developed, so did this idea of “angel of the house.” Words such as frivolous, illogical and tenderhearted were constantly associated with women. (1) Women were deemed to be fit for no complicated life matters, due to their supposedly short attention spans.
This naive, narrow view of women was challenged near the end of the 19th century, as middle and high class women began attending secondary schools, and were able to receive university education. These women were able to occupy their time with all sorts of work (of the church and charitable variety) that enabled them to become more independent, and involved in society. As a result of this advancement in women’s education, attention was soon placed upon women’s rights.
Undoubtedly, the constant reiteration of the elaborate, doll like stereotype of women within society posed a real opposition to the idea of women’s suffrage, making it appear ludicrous and incomprehensible when broached by 19th century feminists.
However women’s suffrage was, nonetheless, demanded over time. By the 1860s, middle class women in Britain were organizing groups with goals such as the likes of giving married women property rights, and all women expanded career opportunities and the power to vote.
In 1870 Muller’s writings as ‘feminia’ marked the beginning of the women’s suffrage movement in New Zealand. (6) Muller’s pamphlet, An Appeal to the Men of New Zealand, brought public attention to the issue of women’s suffrage. She was extremely invested in her cause. Her argument, alike with the other educated middle class feminists of the century, rested partly on class--how on earth were uneducated men able to vote, when educated women were appallingly denied such a right? She claimed that women, who were unable to vote, were thus being likened to criminals and lunatics, who were also unfit to vote. Her symbolism and metaphors were clever techniques used to illustrate her point.
The end of the 1860s, in turn, was a good time to broach the issue in New Zealand, as New Zealand society felt optimistic and prosperous. People enjoyed a very decent quality of life, and were more open to the issue.
In 1870 Muller’s writings as ‘feminia’ marked the beginning of the women’s suffrage movement in New Zealand. (6) Muller’s pamphlet, An Appeal to the Men of New Zealand, brought public attention to the issue of women’s suffrage. She was extremely invested in her cause. Her argument, alike with the other educated middle class feminists of the century, rested partly on class--how on earth were uneducated men able to vote, when educated women were appallingly denied such a right? She claimed that women, who were unable to vote, were thus being likened to criminals and lunatics, who were also unfit to vote. Her symbolism and metaphors were clever techniques used to illustrate her point.
The end of the 1860s, in turn, was a good time to broach the issue in New Zealand, as New Zealand society felt optimistic and prosperous. People enjoyed a very decent quality of life, and were more open to the issue.
The causes of inspiration for enfranchisement of women in New Zealand stemmed from two main sources (but these sources in turn can be traced back to other numerous sources before them). One thing is undeniable: women's suffrage was inevitable. The forces underlying it had been building up through the years, and eventually the dam burst, the pressure grew too great, and a flood of enlightenment, and desire for respect and reform, flowed through the 19th century women, turning them into a remarkable force: the suffragists.
Firstly, the idea that equality could, and should, be reached was preached by John Stuart Mill, British feminists (such as Barbara Bodichon) and a myriad of other women’s societies.
John Stuart Mill was a philosopher. Mill saw the significance of women’s issues and attempted to convince others that in order to truly advance as a society, society itself would need to accept and allow perfect equality between men and women. Men had a myriad of political rights that females did not, yet there was no logical reason why these rights couldn’t be extended to females. Mill felt there were far too many aspects of society that hindered women---such as marriage (which gave their husbands authority over their assets), their lesser education and gender construction within society. He released an article, entitled The Subjection Of Women, in 1869, which elaborated on his ideas. It has been traced as one of the root sources of inspiration for women’s suffrage. (3) Barbara Bodichon was a British feminist who greatly endorsed the idea of Women’s Suffrage. She released many pamphlets advocating women’s rights. “Women and Work” was published in 1857 and “Enfranchisement of women” was published in 1866, as was “Objections to Enfranchisement of Women.” These publications were a stated source of motivation for budding suffragists, inspiring them to begin a movement. (5) As quite a few of the New Zealand suffragists were of British descent, this explains how the beliefs of British feminists and philosophers were able to influence New Zealand society. It must be noted, however, that the founding text of feminism, A Vindication of the Rights of Women, was written by Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792. She herself had been inspired by the early French Revolution, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. Her text would have undoubtedly influenced the later feminists, such as Bodichon, and would have had an impact on philosophers, such as John Stuart Mill, as well. Hence, due to the works of feminists, philosophers and women’s societies, the issue of women’s suffrage was brought to the New Zealand public's attention. |
Secondly, the issue of women’s suffrage in New Zealand was also directly influenced by the American based Women’s Christian Temperance Union, the W.C.T.U. Their reasons for advocating suffrage were derived from the fact that they believed in order to better warn society about the dangers of alcohol, women would need to have a say in political decisions, and hence would need to have the basic right to vote. The president of the W.C.T.U persuaded members that it was imperative that women gained the vote, in order to have the political power to actually implement desired bans and restrictions concerning alcohol. It was this message that the missionaries of the W.C.T.U spread abroad---including in New Zealand.
Mary Leavitt was a W.C.T.U member that travelled the length of New Zealand and, with the assistance of Anne Ward, was able to establish branches of the New Zealand Women’s Christian Temperance Union. This union later led the women’s suffrage campaign in New Zealand. The W.C.T.U was quite well received in New Zealand. This is because, in the 1880s, New Zealand entered a period of economic recession, which lasted to the mid 1890s. Problems such as poverty, sexual licences and disorder became more common. “Drunkenness, poverty, crime and sexual promiscuity” were all labelled as “social evils” and were things that women wanted under control, and eradicated if possible. (11) In other words, moral reform was desired. Many New Zealand women were eager to blame alcohol for the “ills of society” (6) and hence would have supported and contributed to the W.C.T.U. |
These movements demanding social reform can, incidentally, be traced back to earlier sources. In Christianity, there is said to be a state of spiritual individualism, in which the responsibility of all believers, regardless of their gender, is to take control of their own actions and lives. This point is stressed within the religion. As there was a period of increased spiritual interest in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, this evangelical revival was responsible for the formation of groups aiming to “purify society of moral abuses” in Britain and America. (6) In these movements women held prominent roles (sometimes even of leadership). Furthermore, as women were seen to have greater moral fibre, in certain groups it was thought that they were better suited than men to purify society.
Ultimately, equality and moral reform---both ideas had a large influence on the New Zealand’s women’s suffrage movement.
Ultimately, equality and moral reform---both ideas had a large influence on the New Zealand’s women’s suffrage movement.
Consequently, due to the publicization of these ideas, married women began challenging the laws that resulted in their husbands automatically having custody of their property and children. Single women demanded education. Individual women, such as Florence Nightingale, ended up shattering and destroying the myth of the “helpless and delicate” lady. (6) Women were ready to be seen as more than helpless, to gain the rights they deserved.
It must be noted that demanding women’s suffrage was not such a foreign idea, even in the 19th century. Individual women had been demanding suffrage for themselves from as early as the 1600s. The ability to vote was seen as “the defining feature of full citizenship”, the right that every citizen of a country, be they male or female, ought to have. (8)
The fact remains that without the power to vote, one’s issues and ideas are not considered thoroughly enough by parliament members. A significant number of women in the 19th century were finally beginning to become besotted with the idea of voting and of having a say in the very laws the governed them.
In order to obtain enfranchisement, New Zealand women had a limited number of options available to them (one of which was civil disobedience.) However the New Zealand women chose to stay within the boundary of the law in their campaign---it seems likely they chose to do so in order to combat, somewhat preemptively, the opponents that would no doubt rise and use any potential civil disobedience as evidence of societal breakdown.
Hence ultimately, the idea of women’s suffrage, like a spark progressing to a burning fire, ignited a passion within the New Zealand suffragists, and managed to get the majority of the public---males, females, opponents, and advocates---involved in thinking and contributing to this controversial issue. Thus, it was an issue with an extremely high degree of public involvement.
It must be noted that demanding women’s suffrage was not such a foreign idea, even in the 19th century. Individual women had been demanding suffrage for themselves from as early as the 1600s. The ability to vote was seen as “the defining feature of full citizenship”, the right that every citizen of a country, be they male or female, ought to have. (8)
The fact remains that without the power to vote, one’s issues and ideas are not considered thoroughly enough by parliament members. A significant number of women in the 19th century were finally beginning to become besotted with the idea of voting and of having a say in the very laws the governed them.
In order to obtain enfranchisement, New Zealand women had a limited number of options available to them (one of which was civil disobedience.) However the New Zealand women chose to stay within the boundary of the law in their campaign---it seems likely they chose to do so in order to combat, somewhat preemptively, the opponents that would no doubt rise and use any potential civil disobedience as evidence of societal breakdown.
Hence ultimately, the idea of women’s suffrage, like a spark progressing to a burning fire, ignited a passion within the New Zealand suffragists, and managed to get the majority of the public---males, females, opponents, and advocates---involved in thinking and contributing to this controversial issue. Thus, it was an issue with an extremely high degree of public involvement.